The earliest known beads were unearthed in France and they date back to 38,000 BC; they were made of “grooved” animal teeth and bones, and most likely were worn as pendants. A modest 7000 years later, in what is known as the Upper Paleolithic time in Western Europe, beads were appearing in considerable quantities, as some of the very earliest creations of man. At the same time as the astonishing cave paintings in France and Spain were being created, so too was man working on sophisticated bead forms, with the “grooving” giving way to perforation, and the grinding of bone and ivory into bead shapes. The stringing together of beads was thought to have first occurred around 28,000 BC.
Beads are, therefore, some of the earliest evidence of man’s abstract thinking, reflecting the sophisticated mentality of the Upper Paleolithic peoples. So, what functions did these beads serve? Expression of hopes for good hunting, of a need for spiritual protection, and of an emerging need for some personal identity. The whole notion of self-beautification seems to have been born out of that yearning for individuation.

Ultimately the most ancient civilizations whose beads we have been able to study are: Mesopotamia, Sumeria, Egypt, and India. What is called “Western Asia” was, in fact, the cradle of this ancient art, with the Mesopotamians specializing in agate and etched carnelian (2000 BC), the Sumerians working with lapis (3rd mill BC), and the “millefiori” glass coming (again) from Mesopotamia around 1500 BC. The millenium from 4000 to 3000 BC was a highly evolved, prosperous, busy period of intensive agriculture in river valleys, and the beads (in crystal, carnelian, amethyst, faience, jasper, ivory, and crystal) served as amulets and status symbols -- in other words, these manmade beauties carried both spiritual and materialistic intentions with them.

EGYPT

No other culture produced such a large variety of beads in so many different materials. Beadwork was thought to originate in the Old Kingdom period (2100-1700 BC), created from amethyst, gold, carnelian, lapis, and turquoise. Egyptian beadmaking reached its high point in the Middle Kingdom, as over time guilds were formed for the different kinds of bead workers (goldsmiths, faience workers, stone carvers, glass makers, etc). The largest number of beads were in faience, an inexpensive substance thought to be a forerunner of glass. It was invented in Mesopotamia around 4000 BC., and was the first synthetic material to simulate precious stones like turquoise and lapis. Glass first appeared around 1400 BC. During the New Kingdom, glass replaced precious stones, primarily opaque glass in luminous colors. Though glassmaking declined around 1200 BC, there was a revival in the time of Ptolemy (4th c BC).

AFGHANISTAN

Ancient Afghanistan was a major supplier of raw materials and beautiful stone beads to the neighboring cultures, connected by the numerous trade routes through that region. Afghanistan bordered Iran, India, China, and Russia. It was, in effect, an intermediary between East and West. There was local manufacturing of beads in Afghanistan around 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. With the decline of the Babylonian empire, great bead making ended here. The materials most associated with this region are: agate, jasper, carnelian (and lapis).

THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The 2nd millennium BC saw the rise to power of Rome in the Mediterranean and Europe, and that power endured until around 476 AD. Rome’s territory spanned from Armenia and Assyria to Germany and Britain and Egypt. The art was rooted in the Hellenistic aesthetic, with a mixture of colored stones and Etruscan surface decorated gold. With the vastness of their empire, they had huge resources of beads and precious materials. Glass production became a major effort around 100 BC to 400 AD, with factories in Syria, Egypt, Switzerland, Italy, Rhineland, and France. The glass work was widely traded, as far as China, Korea, Iran, and Ethiopia. Along the East coast of the Mediterranean, the glass works produced finely crafted beads, which ultimately created a link between Rome and the Islamic era. This was the last great period of old glass making.

AFRICA

Bead making and bead wearing was common in many different areas of this continent, and I will only touch on a few. The “bodom” beads, from Ghana, were thought to have magical powers; they were predominately yellow and often had a black or dark green core. The Berbers of North Africa lived in rugged mountains on the edge of the Sshara. The Berber women wore enormous amounts of colorful beads, which they considered to have “amuletic” protection. This was particularly associated with coral and amber. The bead’s value was always based on weight. The aesthetic here was more Islamic than African. The Berbers wore long necklaces of large various shaped beads: amber, coral, amazonite, silver, and glass. Each bead was thought to carry a message, with the gold and amber representing protection against disease.

In African societies, beads were usually part of an assemblage of materials: shells, twigs, glass, bone. Adornment for them was a “community Art.” Beads were thought to represent spiritual values which were necessary for the community, and these beaded creations played a major role in rituals.

CENTRAL AMERICA AND JADE

Jade beads were made by the Olmecs, the Maya, and the peoples of Costa Rica between 1—BC and 600 AD. Jade beads were first found in Pre-Classic Olmec tombs around 1000 BC – this was a blue green stone. In the Classic Period (1-900AD) the jade was more apple green, found in Guatemalan highlands in Mayan Teotichuacan offerings. The Post Classic era saw jade diminishing gradually. And later, with the Mixtec and Aztec offerings we see less brilliantly colored jade.

All our knowledge of how jade was worn comes from the numerous depictions on pottery and architectural panels. Like the Olmecs and Aztecs, the Maya considered jade more precious than gold. Mayan nobility wore quantities of jade beads, and jade objects were buried with them. Most of the Mayan jade was imported from the area known as Guatemala. Beads were rarely geometrically perfect (because of the stone’s scarcity and hardness). Mayans preferred apple green and emerald green, while the Olmecs preferred green and blue green. The beads were always treated as single objects, and were often combined in an irregular order. Because jade doesn’t flake, it must be ground and polished, and therefore the finished product often conforms to the stone’s natural shape. It is harder than steel, so carving without metal tools must have been a huge feat, a dedicated “practice,” all the work being done by grinding, often with stone and bamboo abrasives.

INDIA

Nagaland, a tribal territory, bordering on Southwest Burma, is the source of some bold bead work. These peoples, of Mongolian descent, were isolated until the 20th century, because of their remote location, and their reputation as headhunters. Beaded jewelry was very important to these tribal peoples, who were mainly farmers living in villages, following an animistic religion. They held many ceremonies to drive away evil spirits and insure their harvest, believing the world to be overshadowed by malevolent spirits. If one didn’t have any personal power, one was therefore vulnerable to being overcome. And, since they believed that a man’s power resided in his head, they also then felt that by taking a man’s head you could acquire his personal power. All of the Naga jewelry that we have collected over the centuries was made from traded objects, such as shells from Bay of Bengal, carnelian and brass from India, glass from India and Venice. They wore little clothing, so the beaded jewelry (as well as tattooing) was their attire, their adornment. The beads were worn in festivals, ceremonies to celebrate plantings, harvests, successful headhuntings. Their culture is currently disappearing, largely due to contact with the modern world. Since there has been diminshing trade of beads and shells, the jewelry making is ceasing. The art form itself is losing its meaning, with the eroding of traditions and ritual.

Beaded jewelry in general has always been important in all classes of Indian society, marking many different stages of Indian life. A strong relationship between religion and jewelry has existed in India Worshippers of certain gods wore certain beads to differentiate themselves from members of other branches of faith, including non-Hindus.

Indian stone bead making began around 6500 BC with carnelian, and there has been little change in bead crafting techniques since that time. India has a huge supply of semi-precious minerals: chalcedony, agate, onyx, jasper, rock crystal, turquoise, lapis, alabaster.

During the Mogul Period (the 16-18th century), Indian jewelry became very sophisticated. Great wealth was concentrated in the hands of the Mogul rulers, and exquisite craftsmanship prevailed, particularly with precious metals (gold) and stones. This was known as a great creative age in Indian history, with the patronizing of painters, architects, and jewelers. Beadmaking with precious stones also flourished.

The decline of this jewelry production came on the heels of Venice establishing itself as the beadmaking center by around the 15th century. Venice was encroaching on the Indian market, and India’s role as exporter began to decline. The development of new industrial techniques in Europe also contributed to India’s losing its hold, since it allowed much larger quantities in uniform shapes, sizes, colors, etc.

TIBET (CENTRAL ASIA)

Between 100 and 700 AD, the trade routes expanded through Central Asia, and this was accompanied by the expansion of Buddhism and the introduction of Hinduism. Tibet had been a closed country for limited periods of its history, and became a Buddhist “theocracy” in the early 700’s, remaining so until it was absorbed by China in 1959. For the Tibetans, all personal adornment had religious meaning. Most trade was of luxury goods, such as beads and bead materials. Tibetan jewelry is usually quite large in scale (to express rank of owner),and sturdy (to withstand their itinerant lives). Decorative surface designs, bold presentation of semi-precious stones, repeated use of turquoise, coral, and amber – all these are hallmarks of the Tibetan aesthetic. Exuberance of color was common. Large quantities of jewelry would be worn by both men and women. As was true of the Africans, there was high protective value associated with certain materials in the Tibetan culture – in this case, turquoise, amber, and coral. Turquoise, which also functioned as barter material, was worn by all classes (even the poor), while coral (imported from Italy) was associated only with the wealthy.

The Dzi Bead – long associated with the Tibetan jewelry production, is a black and white or brown etched (or treated) agate, found in limited shapes. Dzi beads were considered a “precious jewel of supernatural origin.” Their origin, manufacture, and exact definition are hotly debated to this day. Tibetan religious laws forbid excavation, so all the information that comes forward is from vague written descriptions, or transmitted folk tales. It has been suggested that the mysterious patterns found in most Dzi beads suggest shamanism (dating back to Tibet’s pre-Buddhist animist religion).

Since China took over Tibet, eliminating their class system, and their nobility, most jewelry production has ceased. During the Cultural Revolution and the Chinese repression of Buddhism in the sixties, most adornment was outlawed, even to the extent of forbidding the carrying of prayer beads (“malas”). Most Tibetan jewelry on the market today is coming from Nepal, where there is a huge exiled Tibetan population, and most of this is not of historical value (i.e. newly manufactured).

VENICE AND BEADMAKING

In examining the spreading glass production societies of Europe, we can conclude with certainty that the Venetians dominated the market. As the Venetians rose in prominence, those crafts in Western Asia were on the decline.

When the Mongols overran Damascus, Tyre, Aleppo,and Sidon (in 1401), the 3000 year old glass making practices there came to an end, and as that happened, Venice moved into prominence. Because of their (Venetians) ties with Byzantium and the Eastern Mediterranean, the re-birth of the glass industry became possible during the Middle Ages.

There were discoveries of glass furnaces, fragments, and mosaic cubes dating back to 600AD on the island of Torcello, across the waters from Venice. This leads us to believe that glass production occurred at a really early point in Venice’s history (its founding: 568). The foundations of their great industry were established between 1200 and 1400, but in 1292 all glass factories were moved to the island of Murano to protect Venice from fires and to keep secret the specifics of the creative work being produced. Murano glassmakers were forbidden by law to reveal secrets of glassmaking, or to set up any production elsewhere. Over time, Venetian glassmakers were inspired by the old Egyptian and Roman glass artifacts that they were propelled to reproduce. By 1592 glassmaking was again allowed in Venice, and lamp wound beads became an important industry (a lot easier, less labor intensive than the earlier “wound” or “drawn” glass bead process). Most significant Venetian glass bead types: glass seed, chevron, and mosaic glass. They essentially reinvented the mosaic glass process, using “drawn” techniques of compound and composite canes (similar to the Roman methods). They also invented a molding technique, which further simplified production of intricate designs.

Between 1500 and 1525 there were 24 glass factories in Venice; in 1606 there were 251, and by 1764, approximately 44,000 lbs of beads were being created weekly. Following the Napoleonic conquests, the industry suffered, naturally. Recovery occurred, but the large volume of beads was never again produced, largely because of the growing industries in such places as Bohemia, Moravia, and the Netherlands.

INDONESIA

Since prehistoric times, beads have played an important part in the Indonesian funerary rituals. The beads excavated from various stone gravesites date back to pre-400 AD (Sumatra, E. Java, Central Java, Bali). These beads were often found in the graves along with iron tools, bronze and gold ornaments, and pottery. They were used as adornment as well.

In the Classical Period (500-1500 AD), beads were used as prayer beads, and as adornment; evidence of this is found in the stone reliefs at the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. By 1400, there was a trend away from beads and toward the wearing of gold. Various ancient beads from Egypt, China, India, and West Asia were also found in Indonesia, suggesting contacts between Indonesians and the outside world since the beginning of Christianity. Similar beads were also found in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, China, South Korea, and Malaysia; obviously a great deal of trading was going on between the Indonesian peoples and these other cultures. There is a suggestion that a great deal of the early beads found in East Java had in fact been produced from illegal diggings in prehistoric gravesites. Clearly many of the beads collected today from Indonesia were discovered through what they call “surface finds” in other parts of Java and Sumatra.

Some of the materials making up the Indonesian beads are: crystal, agate, and carnelian. There are also the famous “polychrome” beads made in East Java, mosaic beads with sunbursts, eyes, and stripes alone or in combination. This involved a winding or coiling of molten glass around a metal rod. The common color combinations are: yellow and mid-green, and dark green and white. Swirled stripes of red, yellow, white, green, and blue, are shaped into short ovals, tubes, or spheres. The “pelangi” are the most prized, otherwise called the “rainbow” beads. They have long looped bands of blue and white, or blue, yellow andwhite, applied to cores of green or yellowish hues alone, or in combination. These beads date from the 9th century or before.

BURMA

The Pyu culture, which dates from 167 to 1044 AD, was an important one in this region for the production of glass and gold beads. The Pyu migrated from Southwest China to central Burma before the Burmese. They were an advanced culture, and established richly furnished Buddhist monasteries. Men often wore hats that were decorated with old flowers and jeweled caps. Women decorated their hair with silver flowers and pearls and gems. Monochrome glass beads from Pyu sites were similar to those exported in South India (from Arikmedu). Many stone and terracotta beads also excavated were known to be of Pyu origins. Amethyst, carnelian, rock crystal, and agate, have also been found in Pyu regions (perhaps imported). Other kinds of beads these peoples created and used were: ruby and sapphire, jadeite, quartz and rock crystal carved as forms of tiny elephants, tigers, or birds. Necklaces were composed often of a mix of gold, glass, and stone beads. Many of the gold beads were filigree with granulated spangles – intricate work indeed. Many small stone seals with Pyu script and intaglios carved with insects, animals, and mythical beasts, are also known to have been created during the Pyu period. The Pyu were known as traders in precious stones as well. During the 9th century, the alliance of Pyu societies was broken by the northern Lolo or Tai armies, from Yunnan. By the 11th century, the Pyu had been absorbed into the large, unified kingdom of Burma.